The Mathematical Attitudes, Beliefs and Ability of Students

The Mathematical Attitudes, Beliefs and Ability of Students

[International Research Journal of Interdisciplinary & Multidisciplinary Studies (IRJIMS)
A Peer-Reviewed Monthly Research Journal
ISSN: 2394-7969 (Online), ISSN: 2394-7950 (Print)]

Dipankar Choudhury
Department of Mathematics.
Bhawanipur Anchalik College, Bhawanipur.
Email: dipankarchoudhury1990@gmail.com

Introduction: Mathematics is abstract. It does not have a shape. Students cannot see it. They need to visualize properly for solving a mathematical problem. Visualization comes from the everyday experience and relating mathematics with it requires a very strong trainer. There is growing evidence of the importance of student’s attitudes and beliefs about mathematics for their achievement in and successful applications of the subject. Research studies have shown that students in higher education who are not maths majors often have negative images, beliefs and attitudes towards mathematics. There is great variation across all students. It is often but not invariably the case that mathematical achievement is correlated with positive attitudes to the subject. Typically, it is confidence in one’s own mathematical ability that is correlated with achievement rather than liking or pleasure in the subject.
Where such correlations do occur it is observed that the achievement-attitude link forms self-reinforcing cycles-
Students fall below their expected level of mathematics achievement for a variety of reasons. When asked why they were not as successful in learning mathematics, many people reply that they “never understood math,” or “never liked it because it was too abstract and did not relate to them.” These reasons and others can be categorized, in general, as environmental or personal, individualized factors.
In this paper I am going to discussed various issue related why students are not interested in mathematics or reason behind for quite mathematics.

Importance for the Study:
Mathematical principles and concepts have become a part of almost every area of work. Knowing these principles will help students succeed in both school and work. One of the skills needed to be successful in the 21st century elementary math is becoming an increasingly important part of early childhood education. The math skills that students learn at a young age build a foundation for future learning endeavors and can be a good indicator of whether or not young people will be able to meet and overcome new challenges as they mature.
Objective for the Study:
To determine why most of students in higher class are not interested in mathematics or avoiding it. What problems they have faced when they were studying mathematics in school. Also focus on the drawbacks of teaching methods in mathematics at school or college.
Methodology:
The data use in preparing the topic is the primary and secondary data. The primary data are prepared from my own experienced in teaching mathematics in school and discussed with various parents why their children is not interested in mathematics or reason for why their children have very poor knowledge in mathematics. The secondary data are collected from various documents, periodicals, books and internet. These data are collected and analyzed in systematic order.

Factors depend on Mathematics learning:
There are various issue related that’s depends upon students interesting towards on maths. Some of them are-
1) Environmental Factors.
2) The Gap between Learner and Subject Matter.
3) Locus of Control.
4) Memory Ability.
5) Attention Span
6) Understanding the Language of Mathematics .
7) Present Teaching System.

Discussion:

1) Environmental Factors: Mathematics instruction must provide many opportunities for concept building, relevant challenging questions, problem solving, reasoning, and connections within the curriculum and real-world situations. Students who are taught in a way that relies too heavily on rote memorization isolated from meaning have difficulty recognizing and retaining math concepts and generalizations.
2) The Gap between Lerner and subject matter: When the mathematics content being taught is unconnected to students’ ability level and/or experiences, serious achievement gaps result. This situation may occur if students are absent frequently or transfer to another school during the academic year. A student may find the mathematics curriculum to be more advanced or paced differently than what was being taught in the previous school. Without intervention strategies, students could remain “lost” for the duration of their education. Too few life experiences, such as trips to neighborhood stores or opportunities to communicate with others about numbers through practical life examples,
can make math irrelevant for students. Gaps exist, therefore, not only in the curriculum but between the learner and perceived usefulness of the subject matter.
3) Locus of Control: Some students believe that their mathematical achievement is mainly attributable to factors beyond their control, such as luck. These students think that if they scored well on a mathematics assignment, they did so only because the content happened to be easy. These students do not attribute their success to understanding or hard work. Their locus is external because they believe achievement is due to factors beyond their control and do not acknowledge that diligence and a positive attitude play a significant role in accomplishment. Students might also believe that failure is related to either the lack of innate mathematical inability or level of intelligence. They view their achievement as accidental and poor progress as inevitable. In doing so, they limit their capacity to study and move ahead.
4) Memory Ability: Some students lack well-developed mental strategies for remembering how to complete algorithmic procedures and combinations of basic facts. However, strategies to improve capacities for remembering facts, formulas, or procedures can be taught. Repetition games such as calling out fact combinations and having students solve them and then repeat those that were called before their turn can help. For example, the teacher would call out “3 X 5 = 15 and a student would respond with “15.” That student would then ask a number question such as “7 - 5" of the group. The responder would reply, “3 X 5 = 15 and 7- 5 = 2.” The game continues as each player calls out a new fact and each responder answers with all the previous combinations and the new answer. Students’ ability to organize their thinking and use it to recall data will affect success throughout the curriculum.
5) Attention Span: Students may be mentally distracted and have difficulty focusing on multistep problems and procedures. Dealing with long-term projects or a number of variables or pieces of information at one time can interfere with achievement. Effective teachers should use attention getters such as drawings and learning aids. Students who work in pairs can help each other stay on task.
6) Understanding the Language of Mathematics: Students are confused by words that also have special mathematical meaning, such as “volume,” “yard,” “power,” and “area.” Lack of understanding of mathematical terms such as “divisor,” “factor,” “multiple,” and “denominator” seriously hampers students’ abilities to focus on and understand terms and operations for algorithms and problem solving. Memorizing these terms without meaning and context is not productive.
7) Present Teaching System: Another major contributor to the difficulty of mathematics is lack of innovation in conventional system of teaching. The conventional system of teaching makes mathematics a dud and boring subject. Students are unable to visualize the concept taught by the teacher. Therefore, their interest level goes down. Hence they start developing a disassociation with the subject. If this disassociation continues for a longer period of time child starts hating mathematics.
This phenomenon of Math fear is growing every day and now central board has also recognized this problem. Through their circular they have asked the schools to create an environment where child takes interest in Mathematics. Fundamentals are still taught in old-fashioned way in the school. Teachers teach fundamental without much of illustration therefore, students are not able to visualize the problem when they face it. They try to learn mathematics much like other subjects where they memorize facts and figures. Mathematics wants a thorough and good understanding.

Prevention of Math Anxiety:

Mathematics anxiety has been defined as feelings of tension and anxiety that interfere with the manipulation of numbers and the solving of mathematical problems in a wide variety of ordinary life and academic situations Math anxiety can cause one to forget and lose one’s self-confidence (Tobias, S., 1993). Research confirms that pressure of timed tests and risk of public embarrassment has long been recognized as sources of unproductive tension among many students. Three practices that are a regular part of the traditional mathematics classroom and cause great anxiety in many students are imposed authority, public exposure and time deadlines. Although these are a regular part of the traditional mathematics classroom cause great deal of anxiety. Therefore, teaching methods must be re-examined. Consequently, there should be more emphasis on teaching methods which include less lecture, more student directed classes and more discussion.
Given the fact that many students experience math anxiety in the traditional classroom; teachers should design classrooms that will make children feel more successful. Students must have a high level of success or a level of failure that they can tolerate. Therefore, incorrect responses must be handled in a positive way to encourage student participation and enhance student confidence.
Studies have shown students learn best when they are active rather than passive learners (Spikell, 1993). The theory of multiple intelligences addresses the different learning styles. Everyone is capable of learning, but may learn in different ways. Therefore, lessons must be presented in a variety of ways. For example, different ways to teach a new concept can be through play acting, cooperative groups, visual aids, hands on activities and technology. Learners today ask questions why something is done this way or that way and why not this way. Whereas years ago learners did not question the why of math concepts; they simply memorized and mechanically performed the operations needed.
Students today have a need for practical math. Therefore, math needs to be relevant to their everyday lives. Students enjoy experimenting. To learn mathematics, students must be engaged in exploring, conjecturing, and thinking rather than, engaged only in rote learning of rules and procedures.
Students’ prior negative experiences in math class and at home when learning math are often transferred and cause a lack of understanding of mathematics. According to Sheila Tobias, millions of adults are blocked from professional and personal opportunities because they fear or perform poorly in mathematics for many; these negative experiences remain throughout their adult lives.
Math is often associated with pain and frustration. For instance, unpaid bills, unforeseen debts, unbalanced checkbooks, IRS forms are a few of the negative experiences associated with numbers. Parents should show their children how numbers are successfully used by them in positive pleasant ways, such as in cooking, sewing, sports, problem solving in hobbies and home repairs.
Math must be looked upon in a positive light to reduce anxiety. A person’s state of mind has a great influence on his/her success. Many games are based on math concepts. Some games that are beneficial to learners and are enjoyed are cards playing, Life, Yahtzee, Battleship and Tangrams. With all the tension and anxiety, math humor is greatly needed. Young children enjoy cartoons and jokes. Cartoons may be used to introduce a concept or for class discussion. Most children will master mathematical concepts and skills more readily if they are presented first in concrete, pictorial and symbols. For example manipulatives are concrete objects used to teach a concept. By using manipulatives, pictures and symbols to model or represent abstract ideas, the stage is set for young learners to understand the abstractions they represent. Students enjoy the change from lecture and books and they are more inclined to explore with manipulatives and show greater interest in classwork. Cooperative groups provide students a chance to exchange ideas, to ask questions freely, to explain to one another, to clarify ideas in meaningful ways and to express feelings about their learning. These skills acquired at an early age will be greatly beneficial throughout their adult working life.

Conclusion:
Some people feel like they are simply not able to learn math. They may have been unsuccessful in learning math earlier or may have been told that they could not do math. This is called math anxiety. Math anxiety has to do with feelings, not abilities. Because someone feels like they cannot do math does not mean that they are unable to do math. The feelings can get in the way, though. For instance, if we see a problem that is difficult
for us, we may unknowingly tell our self that we can't do it. A key to getting over math anxiety is to figure out what is going on. We need to know when our feelings occur before we can manage them.
Most of Students are telling they don’t feel confident in math, they don’t think they will do well in math and they don’t like math. Children’s discomfort with math must be of concern, and we must work together to build mathematics positivity because the research is clear. Before children can learn mathematics, they must become interested in it. Someone say’s” If kids are not having fun, they’re not going to commit themselves. They’re not going to practice or learn. Fun generates achievement and focus.”
There are many important role of mathematics in everyday life. The best way to teach math is to help children to learn something that they enjoy showing to people. If they’re having fun, they own the experience.
Therefore if we put interest for mathematics among students than we must give importance to their school level teach system in mathematics. In conclusion, math anxiety is very real and occurs among thousands of people. Much of this anxiety happens in the classroom due to the lack of consideration of different learning styles of students. Today, the needs of society require a greater need for mathematics. Math must be looked upon in a positive light to reduce math anxiety. Therefore, teachers must re-examine traditional teaching methods which often do not match students’ learning styles and skills needed in society. Lessons must be presented in a variety of ways. For instance, a new concept can be taught through play acting, cooperative groups, visual aids, hands on activities and technology. As a result once young children see math as fun, they will enjoy it, and, the joy of mathematics could remain with them throughout the rest of their lives.
Students are more motivated when they realize where all maths is needed. Point out the everyday applications of math to students. For example, basic math such as estimating prices and totals (when shopping), fractions (in cooking), decimals (calculating with money), and measuring skills (sewing, woodwork) are very needful in everyday life. Percent’s, large numbers, and basic statistics are essential in order to understand information in newspapers and schoolbooks. As adults, we have to calculate and file taxes for the year, compare payment methods, figure out loans and home budgets, etc. And where do you need algebra, trigonometry, calculus, and such "higher math"? Chiefly, if the student wants to study science, electronics, commerce, physics, math, medicine or various other fields in the college or university. Algebra also develops logical thinking and problem solving skills. The crucial point here is that many youngsters in ninth or tenth grade don't YET know what they will do after school. Therefore, if there is any chance that they might want to study one of these fields, it is advisable to take algebra, geometry, and so on in high school.

Reference:

1) Spikell, M. (1993). Teaching mathematics with manipulatives: A resource of activities for the K-12 teacher. New York: Allyn and Bacon.
2) Tobias, S. (1993). Overcoming math anxiety. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
The Philosophy of Mathematics Education, Falmer Press,
3) London, Ernest, P., (1991).
4) Adults Mathematical Thinking and Emotions, Falmer Press,
London, Evans, J., (2000).
5) International Journal for Mathematical Education in Science and Technology 14(2), p217, Berenson, L. and Robinson, B., (1983).
6) Websites and journals related to this topics.

Agriculture – The backbone of state economy in Assam

Agriculture – The backbone of state economy in Assam

Dipankar Choudhury, Asstt. Professor,
Dept. of Mathematics, Commerce, Bhawanipur Anchalik College

Introduction: Assam Agriculture is the primary sector in the state's economy. The socioeconomic
condition of Assam largely depends on its agricultural production. Though India is
becoming one of the rapidly developing countries, some states, especially Assam, are not being
able to escape from taking help of huge sectors like Agriculture. Compared to most other states
in India, Assam is considered a less developed state, which depicts a gloomy picture the
economic condition of the state given that India is considered a less developed country (LDC).
Agriculture plays the chief role of revenue earning in Assam economy. The state of
Assam experiences plenty of rainfall and possesses a fertile land which is extremely
advantageous for cropping. While the socio-political problems afflicting the state since the last
few decades are partly to blame for a lack of conductive environment for economic development
of the state, particularly in industry or service-oriented areas, there are various economic reasons
(e.g., fragmented land) responsible for the lagging agricultural sector in the state. In this topic we
will discuss agriculture sector in Assam’s economy and its major problem.
Importance of Agriculture in the State Economy:
Assam's economy is fundamentally based on agriculture. Over 70 percent of the state's
population relies on agriculture as farmers, as agricultural laborers, or both for their livelihood. A
majority of state's population, almost 90 percent of an estimated 22.4 million in 1991, live in
rural areas where the mainstay of business is production agriculture. In terms of the state
domestic product (SDP), the agriculture sector contributed over 38 percent of the state income in
1990-91.
Assam produces both food and cash crops. The principal food crops produced in the state
are rice (paddy), maize (corn), pulses, potato, wheat, etc., while the principal cash crops are tea,
jute, oilseeds, sugarcane, cotton, and tobacco. Although rice is the most important and staple
crop of Assam, its productivity over the years has not increased so much compare to the other
state in India while other crops have seen a slight rise in both productivity and land acreage. Tea
is the also most important cash crop in Assam and the state is well known world-wide for its tea.
The total land area under tea cultivation (gardens) was estimated at over 229,000 hectares in
1989, employing an average of over half-a-million people per day. In addition, a considerable
number of Assam's population depends on secondary and tertiary sectors-related to the tea
industry.
Information provided by the Directorate of Economics and Statistics on the number, area
and average size of operational holding in Assam in 1995-1996 is:

§ TOTAL AREA AND CLASSIFICATION OF AREA OF ASSAM, 1995-1996 :
a. Total geographical area 78,43,800Hect.
b. Forest 20,12,319Hect.
c. Area not available for cultivation 24,55,613Hect.
d. Net area sown 25,45,000Hect.
e. Total cropped area 36,94,000Hect.
f. Area sown more than once 12,15,195 Hect.
g. Cultivable waste land 88,043 Hect.

Out of the above net area sown, 3 to 5 lakh hectares are affected by flood to various degrees
annually.

Flaw in the agriculture progress in Assam
Agricultural development problems and economic development problems go hand-in-hand in
Assam. Thus, while most of the development problems discussed below are agriculture-related,
some of these are also related to the economic development problems in Assam.
(1)Natural calamities:Floods and dry spells are the principal natural disasters faced by
farmers in Assam every year. The principal source of floods is the Brahmaputra river
and its tributaries.Flood is highly ruinous for crop production. During 1991-92, the
state of Assam witnessed three floods in one year which has caused a heavy loss to the
cultivation sector damaging a cropping area of around 3.5 lakh hectares. Therefore,
flood control is very important and should be given foremost priority to save the crops
in Assam. In spite of such a terrible loss in crops during 1991-92, the state received
31.85 tonnes of rice and it covered around 70 percent of the total cultivated land.
The oilseed production of the agricultural sector in Assam has been looming large on
the other hand with a production of 1.9 lakh tonnes during 1990-91. The pulses covered
an area of 1.2 lakh in the same year with a production rate of 53,000 MT. The increase
in the usage of fertilizers has been a real boost up for the crop production in Assam.
Besides, multiple cropping system has been adopted by the farming community and
this has augmented the crop production up to 145 percent during 1991-92 as compared
to the 140 percent in the previous year. This multiple cropping system has also enabled
the agricultural sector of Assam to take up various modernization schemes since 1992-
93.
Assam agriculture is now focusing on horticulture segment of the state. Horticultural
crops of Assam agriculture such as coconut, citrus, banana, black pepper, and papaya
have been placed on the priority list and a range of plantation materials have been
ordered for these crops to increase its productivity. Sugarcane is claimed to be one of
the main cash crops in the Kharif season in Assam. Also various pesticides and other
protection measures are being taken up by the agricultural department of Assam to
assure safety to the plantation in the state. All these have contributed to the state's
marked productivity in agriculture to a great extent and with the advent to newer
schemes; the agriculture of Assam will soon reach the peak of fecundity.
(2)Capital deficiency:Commercial capital, i.e., loans from banks or other credit agencies,
is not generally accessible to farmers in Assam. As a result, borrowing from
unscrupulous lenders, who are not regulated by the state, at an extremely high interest
rate is common in the state. Tragically, In many instances some borrowers lose their
livelihood, i.e., their cultivable land, to these unscrupulous lenders. Although the
amount of commercial loan for agricultural purposes was over Rs. 77 billion in 1990-
91, most of these loans went to tea gardens. In 1989-90, commercial banks spent only
40 percent of their agricultural-loan budget. Their main reasons for refusing
agricultural loans was a lack of necessary collateral, mostly in the form of land. A lack
of proper land inheritance documentation and a lack of adequate amount of land (due to
land fragmentation) were two of the main reason for lack of collateral among many
farmers in Assam. To fill the void left by commercial banks, the Integrated Rural
Development Program (IRDP was designed to assist rural farming families with loans
to expand and improve their agricultural production as well as to explore alternative
avenues to increase income) used over Rs. 626 million in loans in 1990-91. However,
the need for agricultural loan remains largely unfulfilled in Assam.
(3)Marketing problems: Agricultural markets in Assam are under-developed. Farmers sell
to the nearest dealer/buyers, mostly immediately after harvesting when the price is at
the lowest, instead of trying to find the best market for their products. Geographical
isolation, weak transportation and communication systems, poor marketing facilities,
poor or non-existent market intelligence (e.g., information on price and place to sell)
are some of the principal marketing-related problems. While most of the brokers/buyers
have access to modern communication facilities such as telephone and regular and
timely market reports, farmers in Assam are many years away from having such
facilities to gauge the market and sell accordingly. In terms of the role of government, earlier studies have shown that government efforts are more focused on collecting
revenue (in the form of tax in the daily or weekly markets or through check-gates) than
facilitating the marketing of agricultural.
(4)) Non-economic Factors: Lack of education, ignorance about the changing economic
conditions, out-dated thinking, prejudiced cultural values, disturbed law and order
situation, and lack of scrupulous legislative and administrative machinery are some of
the principal non-economic factors that hinder agricultural development in Assam.
While the first four factors are mostly socio-cultural, which may take time to change
for the better, the latter two factors are mostly political. All these factors adversely
affect agricultural as well as economic development of the state. Political and
administrative instabilities not only create an unstable economic environment which
scare away entrepreneurial skills, capital necessary for growth, and induce brain-drain,
they also adversely affect socio-economic infrastructure, such as education, intellectual
thinking, social and family structure. Obviously, the on-going political unrest in Assam
since the last 1970s is not helping the agricultural sector or the economy of Assam.
(5)Research and development (R&D): The Assam government started allocating funds
specifically for research and development only since the sixth five-year plan (1980-85),
with an amount equal to 0.06 percent of the total outlay of Rs. 11.2 billion. It is
encouraging to note that such outlays were increased to 0.2 percent in the seventh plan,
and to 0.5 percent in the eighth plan. However, it is not known how much of this R&D
outlay is spent to improve agricultural productivity in the state, or how much of the
total R&D output has reached farmers. An assessment of the impact of past and current
R&D in the state would provide answers to such questions.

Concluding Remarks

To sum up, Assam is a state which is totally dependent on Agriculture and no one can deny this
fact. Various economic as well as socio-political factors are responsible for the continued lack of
growth and development of this sector. In addition, ineffective or inefficient government
programs also contribute to this sector's lack of growth. In the middle of continued problems,
there is hope for the future. There is potential for agri-food industries that use primary
agricultural products as their raw materials, e.g., fruits and vegetable processing industry,
sugarcane refining, tea industry, and jute industry. Such growth in the secondary and related
tertiary sectors (e.g., packaging, shipping, transportation, etc.) will not only benefit the primary
agriculture tremendously, but also reduce growing unemployment and provide the much needed
revenue to the state government. In a market economy, private entrepreneurs generally would
take the initiative to establish such secondary (and tertiary) industries, supported by commercial
credit sources. However, a lack of entrepreneurial and managerial talent, a lack of sufficient
capital, poor economic infrastructures, government bureaucracy, and continued politicaladministrative
unrest would discourage any would-be investor. It can be argued that the state
should step in to fill the gap which is left unfulfilled by the private sector. However, given the
poor performance of state-owned enterprises, the strategy of government involvement in
business must be changed. For instance, instead of ownership and management of businesses
using state-run corporations, joint ventures with private, including foreign, investors may be
economically beneficial.

References:

1) Directorate of Economics and Statistics
2) Bagchi, S. AAxomorsahsilpa.@ in Phukan (1997), pp. 64-85.
3) Bhuyan, S. AState intervention in agricultural marketing: Is it necessary?
@Agricultural Marketing, 33, 1 (April 1990):2-13.
4) Bhuyan, S., H. Demaine, and K. E. Weber. "Market regulation or regulated market?
The case of Assam, India," HSD Monograph no. 19, Asian Institute of Technology,
Bangkok, Thailand, 1990.
5) Bhuyan, S., S. D. Urs, and K. E. Weber. "Marketing farm produce: An efficiency test
of traditional and regulated markets based on evidence from Assam, India."
Economic Bulletin for Asia and the Pacific, 39, 2 (1988):46-55.
6) Dhar, P. K. Axomorarthanitirruprekha(The Economy of Assam). Kalyani Publishers:
Ludhiana, 1994.
7) Knutson, R. D., J.B. Penn, and Barry L. Flinchbaugh. Agricultural and Food Policy.
4th ed., Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1998.
8) Phukan, A. K. (ed.). Axomorarthaniti, 1997 (The Economy of Assam, 1997).
Buniyad: Guwahati, 1997.

A Close Look On The Condition of Agricultural Labours in Barpeta District

A Close Look On The Condition of Agricultural Labors in Barpeta District

Mr. Dipankar Choudhury
Lecturer, Department of Mathematics.
Bhawanipur Anchalik College, Bhawanipur

Introduction:

Agriculture and its allied sectors is unquestionably the largest livelihood provider in India, more so in the vast rural areas. It contributes significantly to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of our country. Sustainable agriculture, in terms of food security, rural employment, and environmentally sustainable technologies such as soil conservation, sustainable natural resource management and biodiversity protection is essential for holistic rural development.
The rapid growth and diversification of development activities resulted in much needed expansion of employment opportunities; but, at the same time have triggered rural to urban migration. This trend has inadvertently resulted in shifting of farm labor to non-farm sectors. To sustain food security, it is imperative to encourage farmers to continue with agriculture, where the rural youth have a crucial role to play.
India has the largest youth population in the world and is poised to increase further in the coming decade. Nearly 70% of India’s population is below the age of 35 years, making India the
Youngest nation in the world and interestingly 70% of them live in rural areas. According to 2011 Census, the youth population in the country including adolescent youth is around 550 million. In 2020, the average Indian age will be only 29-year-old, whereas in China and the United States of America the average age is estimated to be 37 years. We may utilize this demographic dividend for taking Indian agriculture to a new height by channelizing the creative energies of the youth through development of skills, knowledge and attitudes.
The economy of Assam is predominantly agricultural based, as about 85% of the populations live on agricultural activities for their livelihood and 15 % is dependent on allied services. The total geographical area of the State is 78.483 lakh hectare. Gross cropped area of the State is 41,59,977 hectare out of which net area shown is 28,10,597 hectare which is 35.81% of the geographical area of Assam.
       Today, agriculture and allied sectors are facing several challenges like aging farmer population, climate change resulting in high incidence of pest and diseases and most importantly the escalating cost of production. India is losing more than 2,000 farmers every single day and that since 1991, the overall number of farmers has dropped by 15 million (Sainath, 2013). This has several implications for the future of Indian agriculture and India’s food security. Young farmers can play an important role in ensuring food security if they are encouraged to involve in farming and the challenges they face are addressed. Over the past few years, rural youth have been shying away from agriculture and globally there is an increasing interest in finding ways of engaging youth in agriculture (IFAD, 2012; Paisley, 2013). In proffer to address this trend, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has always been endeavoring to empower youth with appropriate technologies.
This study is conducted to know the social status of the agricultural workers of the Barpeta district, to study the condition of their works and to know the magnitude of agricultural labours of Barpeta district.

POSITION OF AGRICULTURAL WORKER:

Agricultural workers are provided mostly by economically and socially backward section; poor section for the tribes also swells their ranks. It may be divided into four categories-
(a) Landless workers who are personally independent but who work exclusively for others.
(b) Petty farmers with tiny bits of land who devote most of their time working for others.
(c) Farmers who have economic holding but who have one or more of their sons and dependents workings for others prosperous farmers.
(d) Land less workers who are attached to the landlords.
The category (d) have to work for their principals or masters but their earn can’t shift to them timely. The other groups mentioned above (a, b and c) are also important but the problems of land less workers is the most serious problems in the rural areas. The percentage of land less workers as a proportion of rural worker force has increased from 16 percent in 1991 to 29 percent in 2001. Official data further shows that about 61 percent of the rural households either have no land or hold uneconomic holding of less than 1 hectare. These 61 percent of households in Barpeta of Assam. Total farming family of the District is 1,81,805 and total agricultural area is 3,30,000 hectare. 60 percent agricultural workers have less than 1 hectare holdings. The increase in the number of agricultural worker has resulted from increase in the size of population decline of cottage and village industries eviction of small farmers, uneconomic holding growing indebtedness and growth of capitalist farming.

CAUSES OF THE POOR ECONOMIC CONDITION OF FARM LABOUR :

[1] Unorganized – Agricultural laborers in Barpeta of Assam are totally unrecognized as they are ignorant illiterate and widely scattered. Thus the farm workers have no capacity to bargain for securing a fair wage level.
[2] Low social status – Farm workers mostly belong to depressed classes and thus they are lacking the courage to assert their basic rights.
3
[3] Seasonal unemployment – As the agricultural operations are seasonal thus the farm worker are often facing the problem of seasonal unemployment and under-employment. Farm workers on average get about 200 days in a year.
[4] Absence of alternative occupation:- In the rural areas the farm workers are not getting alternative job when they suffer seasonal unemployment.
[5] Growing indebtedness – Agricultural laborers in Barpeta of Assam are highly indebted. As the lend of wages are very poor thus the farm workers have been borrowing from land lords and become bonded laborers ultimately it can be said that the agricultural laborers in Barpeta of Assam are living in inhuman conditions and in the absence of organized status. They are deprived of all the basic amenities of their life.
[6] Natural Factors:- In Barpeta district of Assam chronically affected by flood and river erosion. Nearly 31,000 hectares agricultural land affected by flood and erosion every years and huge loss of the farmer.
[7] Misuse of government fund: For the sake of agriculture development State and central government release various fund, subsidy, equipment, water cannel to paddy field from river etc. But to gain those facilities the poor and uneducated farmers need to cross the long bureaucratic bridge. Due to which the facilities remain undelivered.

GOVERNMENT POLICY OR MEASURES ADAPTED TO IMPROVE THE CONDITIONS OF FARM WORKERS:

[1] Abolition of bonded labour: - The Indian constitution declared the practice of serf demand offence. It has also abolished agrarian slavery including forced labour by law but it will take sometime before it is removed in practice.
[2] The minimum wage act passed in 1948 by state government were advised to fix minimum wages for labour within three years. The minimum wages are fixed keeping in view the total costs and standard of living. But due to some practical difficulties most of the state could not fix the minimum wages till 1974.
[3] Other legislative measures: After passing legislation for fixing ceiling on land were acquired surplus lands and distributed it among the land less labourers. About 74 lakh areas of land were acquired as surplus lands and distributed it among land less labour.
[4] In India various state have passed necessary legislation for providing housing sites to agricultural labourers. Again under minimum needs programme and 20 point programme high priority is being attached to rural housing site cum-house construction scheme.
[5] Special Agencies: - During the fourth plan two special agencies-small farmers development Agency (SFDA) and Marginal Farmers and Agriculture labourers development Agency (MFAL) were developed for conducting various works like irrigation land conservation dairy development piggory

SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVING THE CONDITIONS OF AGRICULTURAL LABOURERS :

[1] Implementation of minimum wage act: - To implement the minimum wage act seriously and to revise the minimum wages periodically considering the changing price level of the country.
[2] Bargaining Power: - To improve their bargaining power the agricultural workers should be organised through the formation of farm unions of labourers under the protection and support of the government.
[3] Abolition of Bonded Labour: - To abolish serfdom among the landless agricultural labourers totally.
[4] Distribution of Surplus Land: - To rehabilitate the agricultural labourers on the acquired land declared surplus under ceiling laws and also on the new reclaimed land.
[5] Alternative Sources of employment: to create alternative sources of employment by developing small scale and cottage industries in rural areas.
[6] Social Security Measures: To introduce social security measures for the agricultural labours and also to introduce compulsory insurance on marginal contribution and also to institute old age pension scheme for the agricultural workers by the government.
[7] Fixing working hours: to improve the working conditions of agricultural labour by enforcing fixed hours of work banning child labour etc.
[8] Modern Method :- To improve the working conditions of agriculture by adopting improve intensive methods and multiple cropping for raising the productivity of agricultural labourers and promote co-operative farming in rural areas.
[9] Flood and River Erosion Control: - Adequate measures must be taken to overcome the problems of agriculture in Assam created by natural factors. Extensive flood control measures should be adopted to prevent huge loss and devastation created by ever recurring flood in Assam. In Assam river Erosion must be control to save the agricultural land and labourers.
[10] Economic Measures:- To make agriculture move remunerative active economic measures must be introduced. Subsidiary agro-based industries must set up in rural areas. So that surplus labour in agriculture sector can be utilised in these industries. Proper steps must be taken to break the vicious circle of poverty.
[11] Human Development: - For the improvement of agricultural productivity in the state the quality of farmer must be improved through education, both general and technical.

Conclusion:

What would be the face of Indian agriculture say 20-30 years hence? This paper is a deliberate attempt to add a new dimension to the present discourse which presupposes the persistence of overpopulated workforce in agriculture. We propose that the livelihood decisions of the rural youth would be the key to future of Indian agriculture and there is a need to understand the various processes affecting it fully. With around 50 per cent of the world’s population being youth and more in the developing countries, the future of the world depends much on what they choose to say – or do for that matter. The world is practically theirs to decide how they want to live and let others live. Agriculture has been feeding the world population but its ways are not doing that anymore as we can see from the increasing number of hungry people. As it is the best way of providing food if done properly and with no other options, the youth has to come up with how to make the most of it. Agricultural workers constitute the most neglected class in Indian rural structure. Their income is low and employment irregular. Since, they possess no skill or training, they have no alternative employment opportunities either. Socially, a large number of agricultural workers belong to scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. Therefore, they are a suppressed class. They are not organised and they cannot fight for their rights. Because of all these reasons their economic lot has failed to improve even after four decades of planning. This can also be seen from the Prime Minister's speech made in Lok Sabha on August 4, 1966. The Prime minister emphasized -"We must give special consideration to the landless agricultural labour. Although there has been tremendous progress in India since Independence, this is one section, which has really a very hard time and which is deserving very special consideration." So as an agriculture dominated country government should take proper steps for various aspect for agricultural labours, like wage reforms, new methods for agriculture, hours of works, improve the living conditions and overcoming the natural factors like flood and erosion etc.

REFERENCE
[1.] K.p.m sundharam- indian economics thirty seventh edition 1997 new delhi
[2.] Dhar p.k- assam economy, kalyani publishers,eiahth edition 2007
[3.] Dr b.p taygi agricultural and rural develoment economics.
[4.] Guptas r. Popular master guide romesh publishing house 2009.

[5.] Newspapers – Pratidin. Khabar etc.

Value of education for current growth in Indian economy system.

Value of education for current growth in Indian economy system.

Dipankar Choudhury

Lecturer , Department of Mathematics.

BHawanipur Anchalik College, Bhawanipur.

Introduction
India’s Demographic Dividend has been a global talking point for quite some time. While the whole world is aging, India has a significant percentage of population in the young age category. This has heightened the prospects for not just India but the entire world. While India sees the demographic resource to aid its economic development, the world sees it as a huge market and potentially global workforce. Globalization has not only increased completion in world economics but also within and between the education systems. Policies and strategies that drive educational reforms have been adjusted to the new realities by creating structures in education systems that allow assessing comparing and rank ordering national and regional education performances. India is a low income developing country. There is no doubt that nearly one fourth of its population lives in conditions of misery. Poverty is not only acute but is also a chronic malady in India.
Meaning
Education for the knowledge based economy has become a buzz phrase in education policy discourse throughout the developed world and the transition economies but also increasingly in developing countries.
Typically, education reform that is targeted on serving knowledge based economics emphasizes mathematics and science, information and communication technologies, basic knowledge and skills in literacy and development of interpersonal skills. More over a successful knowledge economy also requires advanced secondary and tertiary education provision able to boost labor productivity, research and innovation.
Education – classification
A need quality Education is today’s need as it is the development of intellectual skills and knowledge which will equip learners to fulfill the needs of professionals, decision makers and trainers. The term education is a part of learning which in one sense or another, under the control of men, with the degree of control varying according to circumstances. Therefore the education can be divided into various kinds.
There are three types of education system in India and there are some brief description is given below:
i)Formal Education:
It is that which is consciously and deliberately planned for the modification of behaviors, with particular predetermined objectives in view.
ii) Informal Education:
It is not pre-planned. It is quite incidental. This education starts from the very birth of child and continues till dearth. In short, it is that modification of behavior which comes about necessarily and spontaneously, without any conscious effort for it.
iii) Milieu Education:
This kind of learning that takes place almost automatically, e.g. to walk on sidewalks; to eat certain food and to avoid others to live in houses. Milieu education is also known as social contagion. Education is not as single aim activity. Different aims represent different ways to looking at the same thing. Education aim is to be belongs to vocational, culture and happiness, moral and spiritual. In the past country, we progressed from a stage where the application of science to manufacturing techniques or to agricultural practices becomes the basis for production. Indian economic competitiveness is the key attribute of economic development and
growth. In the knowledge based economics in the last two decades expectations of education, especially the qualities desired in educated and trained people have dramatically changed.
Indian Economy
India is an under developed though a developing economy. Bulk of population lives in conditions of misery. Poverty is not only acute but also chronic. At the same time, there exist unutilized natural, resources. The co-existence of the vicious circle of poverty with the various circle of affluence perpetuates misery and foils all attempts at removal of poverty. It is in this context that an understanding of the major issues of development should be made.
Advantages in India:

India has many of the key ingredients for making this transition. It has a critical mass of skilled, English-speaking knowledge workers, especially in the sciences. It has a well-functioning democracy. Its domestic market is one of the world’s largest. It has a large and impressive Diaspora, creating valuable knowledge linkages and networks.
The list goes on: macroeconomic stability, a dynamic private sector, institutions of a free market economy, a well-developed financial sector, and a broad and diversified science and technology (S&T) infrastructure. In addition, the development of the ICT sector in recent years has been remarkable. India has created profitable niches in information technology (IT) and is becoming a global provider of software services. Building on these strengths, India can harness the benefits of the knowledge revolution to improve its economic performance and boost the welfare of its people.
Education system at Door step:
The idea of education which expects an effective and far researching influence on the impressionable minds of youth should not be alien to the national genius and culture. A glance into the past reveals that never in history has any generation of people seen such radical change in the system of education, as vast, which has affected the life of our ages tremendously. The progress of any country lies on the literacy and education of its population as it gives the required discrete power to judge and rationalize the events on natural surroundings as well as in the social conditions. A good judgment towards these aspects prevails in the mind of the truly educated one. The purpose of education cannot be just money making but truly man making. In the light of the above statement, the investigator would like to present the analysis on the four of the effectiveness and growth of the development of Indian Economic System.
Role and importance of Education:
Generally, at the start of a very young age, children learn to develop and use their mental, moral and physical powers, which they acquire through various types of education. Education is commonly referred to as the process of learning and obtaining knowledge at school, in a form of formal education. However the process of Education does not only start in a child first attends school. Education begins at home one does not only acquire knowledge from a teacher, one can learn and receive knowledge from a parent, family member and even as acquaintance. In almost all societies at any school and receiving an education is extremely vital and necessary if are wants to achieve success. However, unfortunately we have places in the world where not everyone has an opportunity to receive this formula type of Education. Learning subjects in school is not enough one can learn history, mathematics, science in school, and the "book smart" in addition, one can learn how to live life by knowing what to say when, acting a certain way in certain situations and be "street-smart". The above two types of knowledge are extremely essential to the successful in life. But no matter what, education is the key that allows people to more up in the world, seek better jobs, and ultimately succeed fully in life. Education is very important and to develop the Indian economy systems is very objectively.
Role of Education in the Economic growth:
The growth of the economy and development of a country is depending upon the education system of that particular country. A perfect and successful batch of youth of a country is come from education sector.
Many foreign / abroad countries including India, China, Australia, New Zeeland, Singapore and many other developing moves started to welcome more international students. As they bring different ideas, culture as well
as foreign incomes in the form of fees structure, living expenses and other daily expenses. Whereas those developed countries like UK, USA Canada and other developed European countries already open doors for international students and these countries are always emphasis on improving their education structure, developing more colleges and universities on country side areas and always in a way to update their course content on regular. India has also launched many types of different degree courses offered by various universities and colleges of India. But more as times goes on, Indian Education Development has very well improved and now started many programmers and degree courses at International of standard along with the implementation of grading system in middle school that brings relief to middle school students and make them motivated to work hard to complete with co-operate world. The story of education in India is a paradox. Twenty percent of Indian get a fairly decent education, and in a nation of 1.2 billion, this is huge number and helps to explain why India has become the back office of the world. Government schools have failed in India, and this is why one-third of Indians children attend private schools. The Government has implicitly recognized its failure and requires that a fourth of the seats in all private schools be reserved for the poor, whose fees are subsidized by the Government.
Concluding Discussion:
Education reforms currently planned or implemental throughout the world need to include deeper and more comprehensive analysis of what and how schools and leaders should do in order to contribute to the development of Indian economic system of the countries. The emergence of the network society and knowledge based economics appear to be a powerful justification for education reforms in developed countries. Living in and working for a world of innovations requires fundamentally different attitudes, knowledge and skills from the citizens. Technological adaptation and innovation have been the main drivers of economic growth in developed countries sin the world war 2nd and are praying to be important factors also in many developing countries. Successful economic complete on the basis of high values, not only low cost. High value is best guaranteed by well trained and educated personnel and flexible lifelong learning opportunities for all citizens. The most frequently presented general idea for increasing Indian economic development is to equip people with the skills and attitudes success in an increasingly knowledge based economy. The Indian Economic growth and development is built on three central ideas.
1. Economic growth can be analyzed within macroeconomic environment, the quality of public institutions and technology.
2. Technological advance is the ultimate source of growth but its origins may be different across countries.
3. The importance of the determinates of economic development for core and non-core innovators. Based on these commonly used determinants of economic development and growth various indicators of knowledge economy, three core domains have been utilized to explain economic growth.
4. Education and training.
5. Use of information and communication technologies.
6. Innovations and technological adoption.

Reference:
1) Agrwal, (2006) : “Higher Education in India” : The need for change, Indian council for research on international relations.
2) Bhargava (2006): “Knowledge and National Development”, paper presented in the National seminar on the Education commission organized by NUETA.
3) Datt & Sundaram (2007) : “Indian Economy”; Gauravdatt and Ashwani Mahajan, S.Chand and Company Ltd., New-Delhi.
4) Gupta, Asha (2005) : “International trends in Higher Education on the Indian scenario”.
5) Patel.I.G (2003) : “Higher Education and Economic Development”, National and International Perspectives
6) University Grant Commission (U.G.C) (Various years) annual reports, U.G.C, New-Delhi.
7)Role and Importance of Educational for Effective Growth of Indian Economy: An Overview by Sri E. Sreenivasulu.
8) Various papers and journels.

THE SIXTH SCHEDULE OF THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO BODOLAND TERRITORIAL COUNCIL(BTC) OF ASSAM

THE SIXTH SCHEDULE OF THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO

Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC) OF ASSAM

Dipankar Choudhury.
Lecturer; Department of Mathematics
Bhawanipur Anchalik College, Bhawanipur





Abstract: The Constitution of India is the supreme law of India. It is a living document, the permanent instrument which makes the government system work. It lays down the framework defining fundamental political principles, establishes the structure, procedures, powers and duties of government institutions and sets out fundamental rights, directive principles and the duties of citizens. It is the longest written constitution of any sovereign country in the world. The nation is governed on the basis of this Constitution. The most prominent and important structural change in the administration is the grant of political autonomy and statehood in North East India. This process goes back to the British Era when the Interim Government of India had appointed a sub-committee to the Constituent Assembly, viz. North- East Frontier (Assam) Tribal and Excluded Areas Committee under the Chairmanship of first Assam Chief Minister, Gopinath Bardoloi. The committee recommended setting up of autonomous district councils to provide due representative structures at the local level to the tribal population. The recommendation was later incorporated into Sixth Schedule (article 244 (2) & Article 275(1)) of the Indian Constitution. As per the Sixth Schedule, the four states viz. Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram contain the Tribal Areas which are technically different from the Scheduled Areas. Though these areas fall within the executive authority of the state, provision has been made for the creation of the District Councils and regional councils for the exercise of the certain legislative and judicial powers.

Introduction: The North-Eastern region inhabits 12 percent of the country’s 8.4 crore tribal population and has borders with Bhutan, China, Myanmar and Bangladesh. It has seen much unrest and violence over the past few decades. These include insurgencies in Nagaland, Mizoram, Manipur, Tripura and Mizoram and growth of militant groups in Meghalaya. In addition there are conflicts and confrontations over land use and control as well as issues of language, identity, demographic change and minoritymajority relations. The problems are further compounded by mis-governance, corruption, economic backwardness and geographical isolation from rest of India.The Sixth Schedule provides for administration of certain tribal areas as autonomous entities. The administration of an autonomous district is to be vested in a District Council and of an autonomous region, in a Regional Council. These Councils are endowed with legislative, judicial, executive and financial powers. Most Council consists of up to 30 members including few nominated members. The newest Bodoland Territorial Council is an exception; it can have up to 46 members. Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC) covers a geographical area of 8790 sq. km, spread over4 districts. The BTC was set up as a self-governingbody for Bodo Areas in 2003 after an agreement with the Bodo Liberation Tigers (BLT). The aim of the BTC is to –
(a) Fulfill the economic, educational & linguistic aspirations &preservation of land rights, socio-cultural &ethnic identity of Bodos.
(b) Speed-up Infrastructure development in BTC area.
The Bodoland Territorial Council shall consist of not more than 46 members of whom 40 shall be elected on the basis of adult suffrage, of whom 30 shall be reserved for the Scheduled Tribes, 5 for non-tribal communities, 5 open for all communities and the remaining 6 shall be nominated (including at least two women) by the Governor having same rights and privileges as other members. The Executive Council (EC) consists of 12 Executive Members including the Chief Executive Member (CEM) and the Deputy Chief Executive Member. Non-tribes are also given representation on the EC.The entire area covered under the BTC has been recognized with Kokrajhar as an original district and forming other new districts thus totaling four districts in the BTC Area. The area under those four districts has been estimated as follows:


Sl. No  /  Name of District   / Area in Sq. KM   / Population (census2011)
1    Kokrajhar  3,169.20    887,142
2    Chirang       1,069.96   482,162

3    Baksa           3,056.89    950,075
4    Udalguri      1,673.93    831,668
          Total         8,969.98   3,151,047

Constitutional Safeguards for the Tribal Population: With the dawn of independence and adoption of the Constitution of free India, the British policy of isolation and non‐interference was replaced by the policies of integration and development. The Constitution of India provided several types of safeguards to the tribal communities. There are the Protective Provisions to protect them from all forms of social injustice and exploitation, the Developmental Provisions promote education and developmental activities, the Reservation Provisions ensure their representation in legislative bodies and government jobs, and the Administrative Provisions under the Fifth and Sixth Schedules provide for special administrative setup to provide autonomy of self-governance according to their customary traditions.The tribal people live in contiguous areas unlike other communities. So, an area approach was adopted for administrative and developmental purposes. Under the Constitution “Scheduled Areas” are declared by the President after consultation with the State Governors. These Areas have been designated to protect the interests of Scheduled Tribes regarding their land and other social issues and are governed through provisions of either Fifth or Sixth Schedule. The Scheduled Areas of the North East are covered under the Sixth Schedule provisions; all other Scheduled Areas are covered by the Fifth Schedule laws.



Objectives of the paper:

The main objectives of the study are as follows:-

1. To study the provisions of decentralization for the BTC of Assam provided under the 6th Schedule of the Indian constitution.

2. To study the background and necessity of the 6th Schedule of the Indian constitution.

3. To assess actual performance of the BTC in terms of development.



Methodology: While preparing this paper, both the primary and secondary data were used. The primary sources of data included the official records and data collected from the Bodoland territorial Council (BTC). The Secondary data collected from internet and various books, journal related with the topic of the study.



Decentralization vis-à-vis Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC):

 On February 10, 2003, the Assam government, the Union government and the Bodo Liberation Tigers signed the Memorandum of Settlement on Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC), in New Delhi. The jurisdiction of the BTC shall extend over 3082 villages and the BTC has been given legislative powers over 40 subjects. The accord provides for an Executive Council comprising of a maximum of 12 Executive Members, including a Chief and a Deputy Chief, with adequate representation to the non-tribal population.The Government of India and the Government of Assam have been making concerted efforts to fulfill the aspirations of the Bodo people relating to their cultural identity, language, education and economic development. Towards this end, a series of talks were held between Government of India, Government of Assam and Bodo Liberation Tigers (BLT) since March, 2000. As a result, it is agreed to create a self-governing body for the Bodo Areas in the State of Assam.The objectives of the agreement are: to create an Autonomous self-governing body to be known as Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC) within the State of Assam and to provide constitutional protection under Sixth Schedule to the said Autonomous Body; to fulfill economic, educational and linguistic aspirations and the preservation of land-rights, socio-cultural and ethnic identity of the Bodos; and speed up the infrastructure development in BTC area.



Status of Bodoland Territorial Council:

 The provision of the Sixth schedule and other relevant Articles of the Constitution of India will apply to BTC, mutatis mutandis in terms of this agreement. The safeguards/modifications for the non-tribal in BTC area, inter-alia, will include the following:



1. Provision of para1 (2) of Sixth Schedule regarding Autonomous Regions will not be applicable to BTC.



2. A provision will be made in Para 2(1) of the Sixth Schedule for increasing the number of members for BTC up to 46 out of which 30 will be reserved for Scheduled Tribes, 5 for non-tribal communities, 5 open for all communities and 6 to be nominated by Governor of Assam from the unrepresented communities for BTC area of which at least two should be women. Nominated members will have the same rights and privileges as other members, including voting rights. Election from the 40 constituencies of BTC shall be on the basis of adult franchise. The term of the elected members of BTC shall be for 5 years.



3. Safeguards for the settlement rights, transfer and inheritance of property etc. of non-tribal will be suitably incorporated in Para 3 of the Sixth Schedule. Any such law as may be made by the BTC in this regard will not, in particular:



(a) Extinguish the rights and privileges enjoyed by an citizen of India in respect of their land at the commencement of BTC, and



(b) Bar any citizen from acquiring land either by way of inheritance, allotment, settlement or by way of transfer if such citizens were eligible for such bonfire acquisition of land within the BTC area.



4. Provision will be added in Para 6 of Sixth Schedule that in BTC area, language and medium of instruction in educational institutions will not be changed without approval of the State Government.



5. Provision of Para 8 of Sixth Schedule regarding power to assess and collect land revenue and impose taxes shall be applicable to BTC.



6. Para 10 of the Sixth Schedule will not be applicable to BTC area.



7. Provision of Article 332(6) of the Constitution will be so modified that the existing status of representation of BTC area in the State Assembly is kept intact. After the creation of BTC, the Parliamentary & Assembly Constituencies shall be delimited by the Delimitation Commission in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution.



8. In the event, Panchayati Raj system ceases to be in force in the council area, the powers of the Panchayati Raj Institutions in such matters shall be vested with the Council.



The Amendments to the Sixth Schedule shall include provisions in such a manner that non-tribal are not disadvantaged in relation to the rights enjoyed by them at the commencement of BTC and their rights and privileges including land rights are fully protected.



Powers of the District Council:



a) The Council shall have legislative powers in respect to subjects transferred to it as enumerated below. All laws made under this paragraph shall be submitted forthwith to the Governor and until assented to by him, shall have no effect. The BTC shall have executive, administrative and financial powers in respect of subjects transferred to it.



Subjects to be entrusted to BTC by Assam Government:



1) Small, Cottage and Rural Industry; 2. Animal Husbandry & Veterinary; 3. Forest; 4. Agriculture; 5. PWD;

6. Sericulture; 7. Education (Primary Education, Higher Secondary Including vocational training, Adult Education, College Education (General); 8. Cultural Affairs; 9. Soil Conservation; 10. Co-operation;

11. Fisheries; 12. Panchayati and Rural Development; 13. Handloom and Textile; 14. Health & Family Welfare; 15. Public Health Engineering; 16. Irrigation; 17. Social Welfare; 18. Flood Control; 19. Sports & Youth Welfare; 20. Weights and Measures; 21. Library Services; 22. Museum & Archaeology; 23. Urban Development – Town and Country Planning; 24. Tribal Research Institute; 25. Land & Revenue; 26. Publicity/Public Relations;

27. Printing & Stationery; 28. Tourism; 29. Transport; 30. Planning and Development; 31. Municipal Corporation, Improvement Trust, District Boards and other local authorities; 32. Welfare of Plan Tribes and Backward Classes; 33. Markets and fairs; 34. Lotteries, Theatres, Dramatic performance and cinema;

35. Statistics; 36. Food and Civil supply; 37. Intoxicating liquors, opium and derivatives etc.; 38. Labor and employment; 39. Relief and Rehabilitation; 40. Registration of Births and Deaths.



b) There shall be an Executive Council comprising of not more than 12 Executive Members, one of whom shall be the Chief and another one the Deputy Chief of the said Executive Council. There shall be adequate representation for the non-tribal members in the Executive Council. The Chief and the Deputy Chief of the Council shall have the status equivalent to the Cabinet Minister and the other Executive Members equivalent to the Minister of the State of Assam for protocol purposes in BTC area.



c) The BTC shall have the full control over the officers and staff connected with the delegated subjects working in the BTC area and shall be competent to transfer officers and staff within the BTC area. ACRs of these officers shall also be written by the appropriated BTC authority.



d) BTC shall also be competent to make appointments for all posts under its control in accordance with the rules of appointment followed by the Government of Assam. However, the posts, where recruitment is made on the recommendation of APSC, shall not be covered under this provision. The Council may constitute a Selection Board for appointments to be made by it and may also make rules, with the approval of the Governor of Assam to regulate appointments and to ensure adequate representation for all communities living in the Council area.



e) No posts shall be created by BTC without concurrence of the Government of Assam and it shall also abide by the decision of the Government of Assam in respect of abolition of/temporarily keeping vacant any post.



f) Development functions and bodies within the competence of BTC shall be transferred to BTC. In respect of DRDA, concurrence of Government of India will be obtained.



g) The offices of the Dy. Commissioner and Superintendent of Police will be outside the superintendence and control of BTC.



h) The State Government would provide an amount, to be decided every year on population ratio basis, as grants-in-aid in two equal installments to the BTC for executing development works. The proportionate share for the BTC shall be calculated on the basis of the plan funds available after setting aside the funds required for earmarked sectors and the salary. This amount may be reduced proportionately if the state plan allocation is reduced or there is plan cut due to resource problem. In addition, the Council will be paid a suitable amount of plan funds and non-plan funds to cover the office expenses and the salaries of the staff working under their control. The BTC shall disburse the salaries of the staff under their control and would ensure strict economy in the matter.



i) BTC authority shall prepare a plan with the amounts likely to be available for development works, both under State share and Central share, covering any or all the activities of the departments under their control. The Council shall have full discretion in selecting the activities and choosing the amount for the investment under the same in any year covering all groups of people in a fair and equitable manner. This plan will be a sub set of the State plan and would be treated as its integral part. Once the plan of the State, including BTC plan, gets the approval of the Planning Commission the BTC authority will start execution of their plan in the BTC area. Modifications, if any, made by the Planning Commission in the BTC proposal, shall be binding on the BTC authority. The State Government shall not divert the funds allocated to the BTC to other heads and also ensure its timely release. BTC may have Planning Department to prepare the plans for BTC area to be submitted to Planning Commission through the Government of Assam.



j) The executive functions of the BTC shall be exercised through its Principal Secretary who shall be an officer of the rank not below of Commissioner/Secretary to Government of Assam. The sanctioning powers of the Government of Assam shall be vested with the Principal Secretary of BTC and sanctioning powers of head(s) of the Department(s) including for technical sanction shall be conferred on the senor most officer of that Department preferably not below the rank of Additional Director, who may be designated as Director of BTC for that department. The Principal Secretary and other officers shall exercise their powers under the overall guidance and supervision of BTC.



Development of Bodo Language:

1. The Government of India agrees to consider favorably the inclusion of Bodo Language in Devnagri Script in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution.

2. Bodo language shall be the official language of BTC subject to the condition that Assamese and English shall also continue to be used for official purpose.





Additional Development Package for BTC:

a) The State Government, within the limitation of financial and other constraints, may offer or allow the Council to offer, possible and sustainable additional incentives for attracting private investment in the Council area and would also support projects for external funding.

b) In order to accelerate the development of the region and to meet the aspirations of the people, the Government of India will provide financial assistance of Rs 100 crores per annum for 5 years for projects to develop the socio-economic infrastructure in BTC areas over and above the normal plan assistance to the State of Assam. The size of the Corpus will be reviewed after a period of 5 years. Suitable mechanism will be built in the system to ensure that the funds are transferred to BTC in time and at regular intervals. An illustrative list of projects which may be considered to be taken up in BTC given below:-

1. To establish a center for development and research of Bodo language; 2. Upgradation of existing educational infrastructure by way of renovation/addition of buildings, providing modern facilities for teaching such as computers, science laboratories etc. from primary level to college level in BTC area; 3. A cultural complex to be established at Kokrajhar to promote and develop Bodo tradition and cultural heritage; 4. To establish a super-specialty hospital with all modern facilities at Kokrajhar Government Hospitals shall be established in all district, sub-divisional and block headquarter; 5. To establish sports complexes in all the district headquarters; 6. Food processing plants and cold storage facilities at Kokrajhar, Kajolgaon, Udalguri and Tamulpur; 7. Construction of a bridge over river Aai to connect Koilamoila, Amguri etc. with the rest of the district; 8. To build a Bodoland Bhawan in Delhi; 9. To set up integrated agro-processing park and textile-cum-apparel park; 10. Revitalization of Kokilabari Agricultural Farm; 11. To develop adequate infrastructure to promote Manas sanctuary as an international tourist spot; 12. To complete Champa, Suklai and Dhansiri irrigation projects; 13. To construct a highway on the Indo-Bhutan border from Jamduar to Bhairabkunda to connect remote places located adjacent to the border; 14. To set up model dairy, fishery, horticulture and poultry farms/training centers at different places in all the 4 districts to encourage youth for self-employment; 15. To enhance the existing facilities in veterinary hospitals in BTC area.

c) Government of India will provide necessary one time financial assistance required for development of administrative infrastructure in the newly created district headquarters, sub-divisional headquarters and book headquarters, besides the BTC Secretariat Complex at Kokrajhar.





Socio-Economic Development in BTC: The main purpose of decentralization of powers under the provisions of the Sixth Schedule of the Constitution was to ensure rapid socio-economic development of the tribal areas of the North Eastern region having any entirely rural background. It has been more than thirteen years that BTC has been entrusted with the territorial Council.The time is not more sufficient to evaluate the achievement or failure of the experiment of decentralization in terms of the development of the region. No doubt some concerted efforts were made by the local government to expedite the process of development in the district, the success of these efforts are often doubted, debated, propagated and many a time repudiated. Despite frequent allegations of wastage, mismanagement, corruption, nepotism and favoritism in the Council the achievement of the BTC in some of the fields of development cannot be overlooked. It is a matter of common knowledge that the roads in Bodoland are far better than the roads of the other districts of Assam. The NH-31 passing through the district is glaring examples of the better roads condition of the district, though the some roads are still in dilapidated condition. Apart from roads, Health and Educations are two of the important indicator to assess the development of any region.

The medical and health department in BTC are not so bad. In BTC there are many civil hospital, Community hospital, primary health center, state Dispensary, Subsidiary Health center, Leprosy control unit and Medical Sub center. Though all civil, community and primary hospital are working well, the other type of hospital are not in so good condition because of insufficient Doctor, nurse and other medical related staff.

The Department of Education in the four districts of BTC is under the control of BTC Authority. BTC is entrusted to work in the overall developmental activities for the School Education, General College Education, Vocational Education except Technical Education and University Education. The control of Education Department lies on the Executive Member of BTC who is given the charge of Education through the Director of Education .As far as literacy filed is concerned, as per the census record of 2011, the literary rate of the districts of BTC is as follows –

1) Kokrajhar = 65.22%                     2) Chirang = 63.55 %              3) Udalguri = 65.41 %                4) Baksa= 69.25% A large number of educational institution have been established even in the remotest corners of the district.  Some remarkable educational institutes in BTC areBodoland University (BU) Kokrajhar, Central Institute of Technology (CIT) Kokrajhar, Bineswar Brahma Engineering College Kokrajhar, teacher training educational institute, ITI and various science, arts and Commerce College were established before and after the BTC agreement were signed. In the sphere of economic life of BTC area, agriculture still holds a dominant position, but in the recent times occupation like service, trade and commerce, etc. are adopted in a small scale but increasing in nature with the present growing needs of such sectors for the overall growth of the economy. Agriculture has been dominant occupation of any rural society. It is also the main occupation of the economic life of the BTC area. The Bodos who constitute the major population generally cultivates for mustard seeds, tobacco, jute, vegetables like potato, cabbage, cauliflower, cucumber, gourd, green leaves, spices, chilly, onion, ginger, etc. for their daily use and economic gain purpose. Castor plants are cultivated for producing End cocoon, which is a part of home industries in spinning and weaving especially for women folk. For cultivation of paddy, there are three kinds of cultivation of the land in the society. They are Self-cultivation, Adhi system, Sukhani system.

(i) Self system- The owner cultivates his land with the help of his family or male labour (Dahwna) and female labour (Ruwati) for a season by giving them certain amount of paddy or wages.

(ii) Adhi system-In this system the land owner gives away his land to a cultivator for cultivation for a temporary phase and the total product of the land is distributed equally between his owner and the cultivator.

(iii) Sukhani system- here the land owner fixes a contract with the cultivator, and the cultivator has to give a fixed quantity of product for each bigha of land he cultivated (Goswami, 2014).





Conclusion:The above description is a brief profile of the newly created Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC) under the state of Assam. As a territorial council, BTC has four administrative districts, where the provision of Sixth Schedule of the Indian Constitution and the other relevant has been applied. The council enjoys all the legislative powers in respect of subjects transferred to it. The area is also under the control of an Inspector General of Police (IGP) for four districts to maintain law and order situation in the area. Regarding library services, the three types of libraries are in existence under the council-Public, Academic and Special libraries. The area has its distinct demographic feature. In the sphere of economic life, BTC is still dominated by the agriculture. Manas National Park, Chakrasila Wildlife Sanctuary, Bornadi Wildlife Sanctuary are the pride of the tourist destination in the BTC area. The area still needs to go a long way for its all-round development in many points.




Reference:

1.      Constituent Assembly Debates, Vol. VII, IX, XI, Lok Sabha Secretariate, Parliament House, New Delhi, 1949

2.      Gassah. L.S. (ed); 1997,The Autonomous District Councils, Omsons Publications New Delhi.

3.       Statistical Hand book of Assam 2007; 2007,Directorate of Economics & Statistics Govt. of Assam, Guwahati.

4.      Verghese, B.G;2004, India’s Northeast Resurgent; Kurnak Publishing Pvt.Ltd, New Delhi.

5.      Census 2011

6.      TheMemorandum of Settlement (2003) signed by three parties – Government ofIndia, Government of Assam and Bodo Liberation Tigers explores various aspectson the formation of BTC within the state of Assam.

7.      Wikipedia, BTC government website and websites related to this topic. 

A Critical Review Of Child Labour in India and Implication of Human Right

 

Dipankar Choudhury

Department of Mathematics

Bhawanipur Anchalik College.

 

INTRODUCTION :

            Children are the greatest gift to humanity and Childhood is an important and impressionable stage of human development as it holds the potential to the future development of any society. Children who are brought up in an environment, which is conducive to their intellectual, physical and social health, grow up to be responsible and productive members of society. Every nation links its future with the present status of its children. By performing work when they are too young for the task, children unduly reduce their present welfare or their future income earning capabilities, either by shrinking their future external choice sets or by reducing their own future individual productive capabilities. Under extreme economic distress, children are forced to forego educational opportunities and take up jobs which are mostly exploitative as they are usually underpaid and engaged in hazardous conditions. Parents decide to send their child for engaging in a job as a desperate measure due to poor economic conditions. It is, therefore, no wonder that the poor households predominantly send their children to work in early ages of their life. One of the disconcerting aspects of child labour is that children are sent to work at the expense of education. There is a strong effect of child labour on school attendance rates and the length of a child‟s work day is negatively associated with his or her capacity to attend school. Child labour restricts the right of children to access and benefit from education and denies the fundamental opportunity to attend school.
 

The Indian Constitutional Right for Children:
1. No child below the age of 14 years shall be employed to work in any factory or in any hazardous employment (Article 24). It states that “the Indian Constitution prohibits abolition of employment of children below the age of 14 years in dangerous jobs like factories and mines.” Child labour is considered gross violation of the spirit and provisions of the constitution. The parliament has also passed the Child Labour act of 1986, by providing penalties for employers and relief and rehabilitation amenities for those affected.
2. Childhood and youth are to be protected against exploitation and against moral and material abandonment (Article 39(f)).Its states that “Right to equal opportunities and facilities to develop in a healthy manner and in conditions of freedom and dignity and guaranteed protection of childhood and youth against exploitation and against moral and material abandonment.”
3. The state shall endeavour to provide within a period of 10 years from the commencement of the Constitution free and compulsory education for all children until they complete the age of 14 years (Article 45). ). It‟s states the “provision for free and compulsory education for children- the State shall endeavour to provide, within a period of ten years from the commencement of the Constitution, for free and compulsory education for all children until they complete the age of fourteen years”

Objectives to the study :
1) To study the socio-economic background and working conditions of child labour.
2) To find out the factors responsible for child labour and consequences there after.
3) To suggest remedial strategy based on the information gathered.
 

Causes of Child Labour:
The use of child labour is very prevalence in India and the cause is deep rooted with poverty. UNICEF India has estimated 28 million children aged five to fourteen involved in work (UNICEF,2011) Child labour is not a new phenomenon in India where children has always worked. During the industrial revolution child labour increased, due to the shift of labour movements to colonial countries. Children can be found in every sector of the informal economy (Molanka,2008).The incidence of working children in India are engaged in hazardous occupations such as factories manufacturing diamonds, fireworks, silk and carpets, glass and bricks (Kalyan,2013). There are several factors that force children to work such as inadequate economic growth, poverty, unemployment over population and lack of education and health care (Ahmad,2012).
On school attendance in India a large number of children between ten to fourteen years of age are not enrolled in school because of household economic condition. Attendance in school or dropout differs for male and female while boys are more likely to provide financial income for the family, girls are more involved in household chores (Kakoli & Sayeed ,2013).High illiteracy and dropout rates are high in India due to inadequacy of the educational system. Even through many poor families don‟t see education as a benefit to society, they consider that work develops skills that can be used to earn income (Ahmed, 2012) to their family.
Steps and Scheme taken by Govt. Of India to reduce child labours:
In a significant move to curb the rampant spread of child labour across the country, the Government of India is set to ban the all forms of child labour under the age of 14 years, making the employment of children below 14 years a criminal offense. The Union cabinet of India approved the amendments to the Child Labour (Prohibition & Regulation) Act, 1986, today putting a blanket ban on employing anybody below 18 years in hazardous occupation. Such hazardous occupations have also been re-classified in line with the increase in the minimum age of child labour from 14 to 18 years. This will only allow employing children between 14-18 years in non-hazardous industries like forest gathering, child care etc. Children between 14-18 years have been defined as "adolescents" in the Child and Adolescent Labour (Prohibition) Bill, 2012. Employing a child below 14 years in any kind of occupation is set to become a cognizable offence, punishable with a maximum three years imprisonment or fine up to a maximum of Rs. 50,000. Ministry officials said that banning any employment of children below 14 years will go a long way in enforcing the Right to Education Act, 2009 which mandates free and compulsory education of all children in the age group of 6-14 years. This is a crucial step by the Government towards ending child labour following more than a decade of sustained efforts by Bachpan Bachao Andolan(BBA) and the Global March Against Child Labour (Global March) to pursue complete abolition of child labour in India. The Child Labour Free India campaign has a multi-pronged approach of a range of tactics including „Knock the Door‟ – a flagship tactics of BBA where former child labourers knock the doors of parliamentarians and celebrities petitioning them for strong anti-child labour legislations. Pursuing justice and policy changes through the courts both Supreme Court of India and the High Courts for protection of children‟s rights is another strategy that has reaped benefits in favour of strong legislations and child friendly policies. Child Labour Free India Campaign, by the BBA and Global March has strongly encouraged and demanded amendments in the Child Labour Act, all of which have been accepted by the government.

S.No./ Demands/ Approved
1.All forms of employment should be prohibited for children up to the age of completion of education in accordance to the Right to Education Act;
All forms of child labour prohibited from children under 14 years of age

2)Employment of children up to 18 years of age in any hazardous occupation or processes or any economic activity which is dangerous for children must be prohibited in conformity with the Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act 2000;
Children between 14 and 18 years prohibited in hazardous work

3)Child Labour should be made cognizable and non-bailable offense under law and punitive actions against offenders should be made more stringent and time-bound;
Child labour is now a cognizable offense

4)An effective national programme with sufficient resource allocation for comprehensive rehabilitation of child labourers and also for clear monitoring and accountability framework must be in place;
Government working towards a comprehensive rehabilitation, monitoring and accountability framework

5)India should reiterate its new role as a leader in global economy by immediately ratifying ILO Conventions No. 182 on the worst forms of child labour and the No. 138 on the minimum age of employment at the earliest.
Ratification hurdles cleared, and government has indicated that ratification is now in pipeline.

Scheme for the Children development by Govt. Of India: 

a) Schemes of Department of Education
i) Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA)
ii) Mid Day Meal Scheme
 

b) Schemes of Ministry of Women & Child Development:
i) ICPS scheme For providing food and shelter to the children withdrawn from work through their schemes of Shelter Homes, etc
ii) Balika Samridhi Yojana and admission of children withdrawn from into residential schools under SC/ST/OBC Schemes.
 

c) Schemes of Ministry of Rural Development
i) Mahatama Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA).
ii) Swarnjayanti Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY)
iii) Indira Awas Yojana (IAY) S.No. Demands Approved 

1)All forms of employment should be prohibited for children up to the age of completion of education in accordance to the Right to Education Act;
All forms of child labour prohibited from children under 14 years of age

2)Employment of children up to 18 years of age in any hazardous occupation or processes or any economic activity which is dangerous for children must be prohibited in conformity with the Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act 2000;
Children between 14 and 18 years prohibited in hazardous work

3)Child Labour should be made cognizable and non-bailable offense under law and punitive actions against offenders should be made more stringent and time-bound;
Child labour is now a cognizable offense

4)An effective national programme with sufficient resource allocation for comprehensive rehabilitation of child labourers and also for clear monitoring and accountability framework must be in place;
Government working towards a comprehensive rehabilitation, monitoring and accountability framework

5)India should reiterate its new role as a leader in global economy by immediately ratifying ILO Conventions No. 182 on the worst forms of child labour and the No. 138 on the minimum age of employment at the earliest.
Ratification hurdles cleared, and government has indicated that ratification is now in pipeline

d) Scheme of Ministry of Labour & Employment
i) Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana (RSBY)
ii) Skilled Development Initiative Scheme (SDIS)
 

Prevention and Rehabilitation :
 

a. Controlled system for compensation of families for the loss of income.
b. Maintenance of homes where destitute children may be provided, food, clothing, shelter, and allowed to study without resorting to work.
c. Educating village leaders and parents
d. Implement legislation supporting the Indian child labour act
e. Effective schemes to complement the national child labour project.
f. Massive awareness drives, in partnership with media and NGOS to in still the Schemes that have failed need to be immediately rethought and replaced.
 

SUGGESTIONS TO OVERCOME CHILD LABOUR :
 

i) Give child protection concerns top priority
ii) Step-up investments under Restructured ICDS for addressing the rights of the young under-served children
iii) Convert all Anganwadi Centres into Day Care Centres.
iv) Initiate measures to check under-spending in schemes for children
v) Restriction to Job Market
vi) Poverty Elimination Programmes
vii) Increase in Income
viii) Adult Education
ix) Strengthening of Inspection
x) Need of a Comprehensive Legislation
xi) Removal of income disparity
xii) Families must be provided some incentives
xiii) Evening schools should be started
xiv) Free books and other stationary items must be provided
xv) Vocational training centers must be started
xvi) free nutrition mean may be provided at their workplace.
 

Conclusion:
The existing child labour concern is not a change that can be effected in a short while. Policy making is the key. The Government of India needs to implement legislation supporting the “Child Labour Act”. Implementation of legislation requires effective schemes to complement the National Child Labour Project. Creation of awareness at a grass roots level by educating village leaders and parents is important, especially about the necessity of sending girl children to school. The state is in need of massive awareness drives, in partnership with media and NGOs to instill the sanctity of childhood development and healthy growth of children. Schemes that have failed to curb child labour need to be immediately rethought and replaced with effective measures.
 

Reference:
[1] Dr. Subhash,”Demand and Supply Side Factors of Child Labour in India”, Volume 2, Issue 3,ISSN No 2277-8160, march 2013
[2] Chandrasekhar, C. P. "The economic consequences of the abolition of child labour: An Indian case study." The Journal of Peasant Studies 24.3 (1997): 137-179.
[3] http://www.childlineindia.org.in/National-Child-Labour-Project.htm.
[4] Wikipedia, UNICEF, Various News papers, publications and journals